gender wage gap conflict theory

J. Women's and Gender's Studies as an Academic Discipline - Student Specific Content Learning Outcomes, 3. But what do they signify? StataCorp (2011). Sex on the Brain: Humans, like other mammals, exhibit sex differences in their brains and psychological traits. Thus, people in Germany experience remarkable gender inequality in pay over the life course when they participate in the labor market. doi: 10.1007/BF02683292, Kugler, K. G., Reif, J. Why/What is Womens and Genders Studies?, MIT OpenCourseWare, https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/womens-and-gender-studies/wgs-101-introduction-to-womens-and-gender-studies-fall-2014/instructor-insights/, Miliann Kang, Donovan Lessard, and Laura Heston, Introduction to Women, Gender, Sexuality Studies, http://openbooks.library.umass.edu/introwgss/, 7. doi: 10.1111/ecin.12060, Dlmer, H. (2007). Women learned from their mothers to be subservient to their husbands, fathers, brothers, and sons and men learned from their mothers and fathers that their wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters must be subservient to them. Am. How impartial are the observers of justice theory? This was due to womens dependence on men for the attainment of wages. However, their main arena of daily interactions in which status hierarchies emerge and spread is likely to be within the university with other students. Rev. Auspurg, K., and Hinz, T. (2014). Current issues 69 now that we understand the more - Course Hero A second version of this paper has been part of my dissertation (Sauer, 2014b) and is available online as a discussion paper (Sauer, 2014a). The idea is that there is nothing wrong associated with accepting men to give empowerment to women and moreover women need men as much as women need another women., In this environment, the most that women could do was to raise their sons to be better than their fathers, but because of the power that they held in society, men were able and willing to perpetuate these roles and conventions since they were so beneficial to them. 12, 251274. Social Behavior. The results show that male and female students did not produce a just gender pay gap with their evaluations. WebGender wage gap is the difference in earnings between men and women and the difference has been an ongoing problem in the U.S. labor force. The men try to remain the dominant group in order to maintain the already established social order. In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Post-Commun. Am. (2012). To test this underlying assumption, longitudinal data would be useful to separate changes in justice attitudes with respect to gender from differences between observers. Gender Pay Gap in den Kpfen: Mnner und Frauen bewerten niedrigere Lhne fr Frauen als gerecht. Thus, there should be an interaction effect between the vignette dimension gender and the actual gender pay gap in the federal state. WebThere is Functionalism, this plays a part because different parts, there are political influences and government role in wage determination. In other words, respondents produce with their ratings a just gender pay gap favoring men, as found by Jasso and Webster (1997). Therefor, they will recruit enough women so no one can claim gender discrimination, but in the end, male is their preference. The gender gap in pay has remained relatively stable in the United States over the past 20 years or so. (1996). Reward-relevant characteristics are those that entitle someone to receive a certain amount of rewards. This research has limitations. The lowest pay gap in 2009 for full-time employed people was measured in Saxony-Anhalt at 1 percent. 144, 198222. Usually, the official statistics reporting the unadjusted gender pay gap use the arithmetic mean or the median of hourly or monthly wages of men and women. In both models, there is a significant interaction effect between the gender of the vignette person and the subpopulation (student vs. non-student). In reflexive justice evaluations, people evaluate their own rewards (observer = recipient); in non-reflexive justice evaluations, people evaluate the rewards of others (observerrecipient). According to conflict theory,societyis defined by a struggle for dominance amongsocial groupsthat compete for scarce resources. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP. Work Occupat. Die Bewertung von Erwerbseinkommen Methodische und inhaltliche Analysen zu einer Vignettenstudie im Rahmen des SOEP-Pretest 2008. To detect gender biases in justice attitudes, it is necessary to first use a method that allows to find gender gaps. It has been evident that women head the top-performing organizations in the world. Hypothesis 2. Since 2002, the sample size has been approximately 1,000 respondents and considered representative of the German resident population 16 years of age and older (Siegel et al., 2009). Functionalism, Conflict Theory and Symbolic TRADITIONAL GENDER IDEOLOGY, EDUCATION Conflict theory suggests that men, as the dominant gender, subordinate women in order to maintain power and privilege in society. Figure 1 shows the long-run trends in the gender pay gap over the 1955-2014 period based on two If they do not apply however, they are excluded from their society. The Gender Pay Gap: What It Is and Why It Matters - ThoughtCo A first version of this paper was presented at the Conference of the American Sociological Association in 2011 in Las Vegas (Regular Session: How Do Organizations Bring Markets Back In? The factorial survey method and application for studying attitudes and behavior. Gender pay gap - Wikipedia I thank Stefan Liebig, Peter Valet, and Murray Webster Jr. as well as Guillermina Jasso and the two reviewers for critical comments and helpful suggestions. Research shows that it is difficult to directly measure gender stereotypes due to social desirability bias and unconscious gender biases that people are unable to express directly. WebCorrections. Statistical Software. Correlations of vignette dimensions for the student sample. CS conducted the survey and wrote the paper. College Station, TX: Stata Press. The rewards of the generalized other represent the typical earnings of similar people, while the normative evaluation of whether earnings are too high or too low is located in the comparison between the actual outcomes and the referential outcomes. It is likely that people change their attitudes when they leave the university and enter the labor market and unconsciously learn the new inequality structure and thereby change their referential structure. The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations 3. Technical report, TNS Infratest Sozialforschung, Mnchen. HUM210 Introduction to Women and Gender Studies, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Conflicttheoryasserts that social problems occur whendominant. The contemporary, Gender Wage Inequality And Conflict Theory. WebThe conflict theory states the idea that conflict between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general. Both raw and adjusted gender wage gap estimates are highly dispersed in our sample, with values ranging from almost nil to as much as 95% of men wages. Therefore, this study aims to investigate income trajectories and the differences regarding men and women. Sociol. I argue that the gender bias in justice evaluations of earnings is an experience-based bias that mirrors the gender inequality of the structural context in which individuals are mainly embedded. Stata J. Men, like any other group with a power or wealth advantage, fought to maintain their control over resources (in this case, political and economic power). Thus, status characteristics that refer to categorical differences, abilities or inputs are relevant for the observer to estimate the just earnings C of a recipient. The interaction effect eliminates the main effect of gender, meaning that gender is a relevant characteristic for young people or people with higher secondary education who are not students but has no impact on judgments when respondents are students. For decades now, working women are getting paid less than men. Second, whereas the main survey is a study of private households, the SOEP-Pretest is a sample of individuals. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.21. On the justice of earnings: a new specification of the justice evaluation function. The evaluator assesses then whether the outcome is just or unjust and if it is too high or too low. While certaingender rolesmay have been appropriate in ahunter-gatherersociety, conflict theorists argue that the only reason these roles persist is because the dominant group naturally works to maintain their power andstatus. The actual gender pay gap captures the differences in earnings between men and women. The effect of the SIOPS has a significantly negative value, meaning that those vignette persons described by working in occupations with higher prestige scores were evaluated as more under-rewarded than those with lower scores (occupation status reward). WebPrevious research has shown that female doctoral graduates earn less than male doctoral graduates; however, there has been little research on the determinants of this gender pay gap. Sexism and misogyny will steadily disappear with this quota firmly in place, as it looks to, equalize the power discrepancy between men and women (Kittay 1999, 12). The Gender Pay Gap: Income Inequality Over Life Course A further note is that in all three datasets, there were similar effects for the other dimensions, indicating consensus regarding expected rewards for inputs and abilities such as education, occupation, and age. Moreover, the study examines how human capital Argument that Gender is Not a Social Construct, This article was first published in The Irish Times on 04/04/2013. 5:22. doi: 10.3389/fsoc.2020.00022. The hypothesis refers to the question of the existence of a just gender pay gap. 5. Psychol. By linking gender bias to structural inequality, it generalizes differences between students and the general population and provides tests for other sub-populations that likely produce more or less gender bias in their judgmentsi.e., employees working in federal states with high or low gender inequality. J. doi: 10.1177/1536867X0700700207. The gender gap in pay has remained relatively stable in the United States over the past 20 years or so. Although conflict theory eventually evolves into the contemporary conflict theory, this theory truly explains the issue with our society. wage gap Table 9. Status Characteristics and Social Interaction: An Expectation States Approach. doi: 10.1086/344125, Blau, F. D., and Kahn, L. M. (2006). In all Western countries, levels of pay between men and women are only slowly becoming closer (Blau and Kahn, 2003, 2006). Population sample 2 used a three-stage rating task. There are two main differences between the pretest and the SOEP main survey. 81, 11611189. One could argue that the actual gender pay gaps are especially salient for respondents who are actively participating in the labor market. When Opportunity Knocks: Confronting Theory and Empirics The factorial survey (Auspurg and Hinz, 2014) is a method that permits the detection of gender biases [and more generally sensitive topics, Auspurg et al. doi: 10.1007/s11211-013-0182-2, Schomaker, C. (2010a). Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices. Jasso, G. (2007). Sociol. Soc. While students are undoubtedly socialized in a gender-unequal society and gender inequalities also exist at universities, the gender bias based on daily experiences should at least be lower than in other subpopulations. 66, 125145. Want to create or adapt books like this? Rev. Theory 22, 432444. J is a function of the actual earnings (A) and the characteristics being evaluated as relevant for the assessment of the just reward. The data of the population sample 1, the student sample etc. Res. Moreover, the respondents could skip vignettes if they did not want to answer. The contribution of this paper is to apply the theoretical explanations offered by Berger et al. Sociol. The observers produce in this case no just gender pay gap. Table 6. Given the overwhelming male dominance evident in almost every firm in the past century, men have come to see themselves as the dominant sex. In all cases, researchers compare median earnings for women versus men. dominant Ruling; governing; prevailing; controlling. Many articles provide discussions on different aspects of the theory [see Jasso (1978, 1980, 1981, 1986); Sotan (1981); Markovsky (1985); Whitmeyer (2004)]. GENDER PAY GAP The main effect of the vignette dimension of gender is insignificant, indicating that there was no gender bias in the evaluations if the actual gender pay gap was zero. We place gender specific roles on male and female because our long history of men dominating cant be easily replaced. Therefore, the findings presented above could reflect age or cohort as well as education effects. The experienced structural inequalities between men and women affect justice attitudes toward gender. Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Rev. Am. ^The theory is based on the research of Adams (1965), Homans (1974), Berger et al. The social sciences students are embedded in a structural context in which relevant resources are not (or less) correlated with gender, and therefore, gender is unlikely to become a status characteristic in their daily interactions. The actuality is that our society wants to gender inequality. Under the structural condition of gender inequality, it is likely that gender has status value. This is a mandatory requirement to investigate gender bias introduced by the respondents. doi: 10.1007/s11211-015-0256-4, Liebig, S., Sauer, C., and Schupp, J. J. Sociol. Advances in experimental social psychology, in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. Is Gender Socially Constructed? Social order is kept by power and control; those with wealth and power try to hold on to it; mainly by overpowering the poor and powerless. Commun. Jasso, G., and Meyersson Milgrom, E. (2008). Equation (6) includes the vignette dimensions, the structural context (the actual gender pay gap (GPG) and the average earnings per federal state), and the cross-level interaction between the vignette person's gender (genderv) and the gender pay gap in the federal state (GPGfed.state). The third model shows the coefficients of the three-way interaction with respondent's gender for male (2 = 6.17;p = 0.013) and female (2 = 3.60;p = 0.058) respondents separately. Web79Conflict Theory Conflict theory looks at conflict and power. And these numbers are a measure of inequality before the pandemic hit. Equation (5) includes in addition to the gender of the vignette person (genderv) and the other dimensions, the gender of the respondent (genderr) and a cross-level interaction term. Dittrich, M., Knabe, A., and Leipold, K. (2014). The population sample 2 is available for registered users at the Socio-economic panel (SOEP) at the German Institute of Economic Research (DIW). According to conflict theory, society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for scarce resources. This means that people compare the rewards of specific people (either themselves in reflexive judgments or others in non-reflexive judgments) to a generalized other that represents a typical other for the specific comparison, e.g., a car mechanic or a teacher at a public school. University of Maryland, University College, Sociological Research on Gender Pay Gap.docx, Social Problems Of Poverty and Inequality.edited.docx, Assignment 2 - Sociological Imagination and the Future of Work/Education. Both studies used the same vignettes. Therefore, men can be seen as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. Wage Gap Conflict Theory The results in Table 7 provide information on the overall difference between respondents in the student sample and the population samples. With Mary Wilson and Rikki Novetsky. Women and Negotiation: Narrowing the Gender Gap Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., and Sauer, C. (2017). It is commonly calculated by dividing womens wages by mens wages, and this ratio is often expressed as a percent, or in dollar terms. For women of colour, immigrant women, and women with children, the difference is even greater. Future research could delve deeper into gender differences by taking into account family structures, motherhood (England et al., 2016), and household responsibilities. The justice of earnings in dual-earner households. The gender gap in negotiation may in part explain why women in the United States earned only about 83% of mens median annual earnings in 2021, according to the Institute for Womens Policy Research. SOEPpaper No. Moreover, it was not possible for the respondents to skip vignettes. Verdienste 2009: Vollzeitkrfte verdienten durchschnittlich 41200 Euro. doi: 10.2307/2095066, Jasso, G. (1986). Gender pay gap in U.S. hasnt changed much in two decades Accounting for the sources of the level and changes in the gender pay gap will provide guidance for understanding recent research studying gender and the labor market. Having men and women share equal footing on these boards will mitigate the concepts of superiority and inferiority., The effects of the pay gap are overwhelmingly negative. They are not looked at the same way nor are people praising them for how successful they will become., Introductory Paragraph Observers (do not) produce a just gender pay gap with their ratings. The three surveys were developed and conducted in collaboration with Katrin Auspurg, Thomas Hinz, and Stefan Liebig. The only exception is the gender of the vignette persons, which was not important for students but crucial for the respondents in the two population samples. Experimental plans in factorial surveys: random or quota design? When sociologists examine gender from this perspective, they typically classify men as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. They are the dominate sex who is seen to be smarter, better and more powerful in making decisions for himself, his family, his business, and etc. 46, 352360. (1972), judgements based on comparisons between two individuals are not justice evaluations (e.g., both individuals could be underpaid). These designs ensure that the influence of vignette dimensions and interaction terms are mutually uncorrelated. Population sample 2 was embedded in a large pretest, and it was not possible to randomize the order of the vignettes per person; thus, method effects regarding vignette order and substantive effects are not distinguishable. The following sections provide the theoretical background of the paper and then introduce the data and present and discuss the findings in light of the literature. The conflict theory comes from the work of Karl Marx where there are different kinds of groups competing for dominance. Res. A new representation of the just term in distributive-justice theory: its properties and operation in theoretical derivation and empirical estimation. WebThe gender wage gap is unadjusted and is defines as the difference between median earning of men and women relative to median earnings of men. The pretest sample is not related to the main SOEP, meaning that these respondents are not part of the panel study. Conflict between the two groups caused things like the Womens Suffrage Movement and was responsible for social change. doi: 10.1515/zfsoz-2009-0501, Shepelak, N. J., and Alwin, D. F. (1986). WebIn 2019, men made a median of $57,456, while women made a median of $47,299a wage gap of 18%. Sci. Soc. Why would some refer to this as a behavioral diagnosis? Double standards in just earnings for male and female workers. Gender pay gap 20062018, in WSI GenderDatenPortal. Each vignette provided information on at least the gender, age, education, and occupation of the recipient described, among other dimensions in more complex vignettes, together with gross earnings. How Two Generals Led Sudan to the Brink of Civil War The analysis sample was restricted to those respondents who were full-time employed because gender pay gaps were available only for full-time employees, so they directly experienced the difference in their daily interactions. Second, one needs an instrument that allows for the analysis of gender bias. (2016). An example of a vignette used is shown in Figure 1. Explanation of the Concept of Social Construction of Gender, Boundless, Boundless Sociology, http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/index.html. The survey was conducted by a research institution with professional interviewers. The fact that male and female respondents showed equal evaluation patterns is in line with findings in previous factorial survey research using a population sample (Jasso and Webster, 1997). To investigate how structural differences shape justice perceptions, the following analyses focus on the two population samples. The second model in Table 6 provides the estimates for population sample 1. This is a 21 cent change in 46 years which Thus, actors who experience gender inequality are more likely to activate a gender-biased referential structure in justice evaluations and therefore (unconsciously) perceive gender differences as legitimate. Labor Relat. The outcome variable in the following regression models is the z-standardized justice evaluation per vignette. If this is true, the difference between students and general populations reported in previous studies should still be detectable with more recent data, and the differences should be generalizable to other subpopulations that are prone to higher or lower gender inequality. Soc. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.10.013. The gender pay gap refers to the average difference in mens and womens earnings, and is typically adjusted for hours worked. Jann, B. 629, 31 doi: 10.2139/ssrn.2399404, Sauer, C., and Valet, P. (2013). Therefore, research on this transformation process using survey experiments would be especially useful. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60108-2, Adriaans, J, Sauer, C., and Wrohlich, K. (2020). WebThe theoretical perspective that explains the issue of gender wage gap inequality is the conflict theory. Am. The question is now how inequalities between men and women influence the existence (10), sign (10) and size of a just gender pay gap. doi: 10.1177/0001699308090039, Jasso, G., and Rossi, P. H. (1977). Along with the theoretical framework, presented is a First, the focus is on the effect of the gender of the vignette person on the justice evaluations for each sample. Reward expectations are formed based on status characteristics and a referential structure. Rev. Therefore, this context variable is useful to compare how the gender of the recipient influences justice evaluations of observers living in different federal states. Frank, T., and Grimm, C. (2010). Previous studies in sociological justice research have found mixed results on the gender bias in justice evaluations of earnings. Die wahrgenommene gerechtigkeit des eigenen erwerbseinkommens: Geschlechtstypische muster und die bedeutung des haushaltskontextes. Distributive justice theories share the basic idea that similar individuals, based on socially defined and valued characteristics, expect similar rewards or earnings. This procedure ensures that potential method effects such as learning and fatigue (Sauer et al., 2011) are uncorrelated with substantive contents of the vignettes. Who should get what? Experience-based gender bias questions the appropriateness of the accountability principle usually used to identify the fairness of individual negotiations. Gender differences in experimental wage negotiations. WebAccording to conflict theory, society is a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for scarce resources. New York, NY: Elsevier Scientific. WebGender pay gap The gender gap pay is an analysis of the stratification of the intersection based on gender. Conflict Theory on Education The analysis of full-time employees resembled the findings of the complete population sample. If respondents rated the income as just, they were forwarded to the next vignette. According to the Institute for Womens Policy Research, from 2019 to 2020, the gender wage gap narrowed from 18.5% to 17.7%. 8. If they rated the income as unjust, respondents judged in a second step whether the income was too high or too low. Zeitschrift fr Soziologie 38, 350357. 83, 13981419. Marxs version of conflict theory focused on the conflict between two primary classes within capitalist society: the ruling capitalist class (or bourgeoisie), who own the means of production, and the working class (or proletariat), whose alienated labor the bourgeoisie exploit to produce a profit.